A recent article has made the mega-effort to summarize all large cohort studies with large numbers of vegans in them.
These studies are in two categories:
- Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians - here the percentage of vegans is smaller or similar to the omnivores but larger than in society in general, i.e., vegans were recruited intentionally.
- Very large cohorts - here the percentage of vegans and "vegans" is extremely small, similar to the percentage in society in general, i.e., vegans and "vegans" were recruited "accidentally".
(The word "cohorts" here refers to cohort studies.)
From the paper:
"
[...]
Table 3. Number of participants in each diet group (n = 2,337,152) §
|
Cohort |
OMN |
POULT |
PESC |
LOV |
LV |
OV |
Vegan |
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
23,245 (36.0) |
10,494 (16.3) |
6,202 (9.6) |
12,798 (19.8) |
5,915 (9.2) |
676 (1.0) |
5,225 (8.1) |
|
CARRS-1 |
7,214 (59.0) |
1,958 (16.0) |
180 (1.5) |
365 (3.0) |
1,920 (15.7) |
129 (1.1) |
452 (3.7) |
|
CARRS-2 |
4,786 (50.2) |
1,938 (20.3) |
167 (1.8) |
323 (3.4) |
2,061 (21.6) |
47 (0.49) |
208 (2.2) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
26,498 (49.3) |
1,703 (3.2) |
8,128 (15.1) |
11,390 (21.2) |
3,948 (7.3) |
95 (0.18) |
1,990 (3.7) |
|
OxVS # |
5,180 (49.2) |
- |
998 (9.5) |
3,576 (34.0) |
388 (3.7) |
52 (0.49) |
333 (3.2) |
|
Tzu Chi HS |
3,519 (63.8) |
120 (2.2) |
233 (4.2) |
1,277 (23.1) |
234 (4.2) |
93 (1.7) |
44 (0.80) |
|
UK WCS |
21,180 (70.3) |
929 (3.1) |
3,804 (12.6) |
3,300 (10.9) |
743 (2.5) |
32 (0.11) |
160 (0.53) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
China KB |
485,796 (95.2) |
1,949 (0.38) |
1,703 (0.33) |
2,452 (0.48) |
730 (0.14) |
12,405 (2.4) |
5,110 (1.0) |
|
Mill WS |
618,450 (96.8) |
3,414 (0.53) |
10,947 (1.7) |
5,361 (0.84) |
742 (0.12) |
33 (0.01) |
79 (0.01) |
|
NIH-AARP |
491,098 (93.1) |
32,960 (6.2) |
1,690 (0.32) |
969 (0.18) |
842 (0.16) |
14 (0.00) |
118 (0.02) |
|
UK Bio |
449,171 (94.8) |
5,438 (1.1) |
10,728 (2.3) |
7,140 (1.5) |
940 (0.20) |
175 (0.04) |
448 (0.09) |
|
All cohorts combined |
2,136,137 (91.4) |
60,903 (2.6) |
44,780 (1.9) |
48,951 (2.1) |
18,463 (0.79) |
13,751 (0.59) |
14,167 (0.61) |
§ Values are N (%). Categorisation into diet groups necessarily used the questions asked in each study, therefore some participants in the vegetarian categories may have very low but not zero intakes of meat, and similarly for the other animal foods
# In the OxVS, POULT could not be determined as poultry intake was not assessed
[...]
We harmonised individual-level data from 11 prospective cohort studies from Western Europe, North America, South Asia and East Asia. Comparisons of food intakes, sociodemographic and lifestyle factors were made between diet groups and between cohorts using descriptive statistics.
Results
2.3 million participants were included; 66% women and 34% men, with mean ages at recruitment of 57 (SD: 7.8) and 57 (8.6) years, respectively. There were 2.1 million OMN, 60,903 POULT, 44,780 PESC, 81,165 vegetarians, and 14,167 vegans.
[…]
BMI was generally lower in vegetarians, particularly vegans, except for the cohorts in India and China.
[…]
In Western cohorts, the risks of cancer in vegetarians and vegans compared to OMN have been reported from several large cohorts; the AHS-2 [5], EPIC-Ox [6], the OxVS [7], the UK WCS [8], the Netherlands Cohort Study—Meat Investigation Cohort [9], and UK Bio [10].
[…]
CARRS-1 and the UK WCS had substantial proportions of vegetarians and vegans, but somewhat less than the target of 25% (23% and 14% respectively), while the NIH-AARP had only 1,943 vegetarians and vegans (0.4% of the whole cohort).
[…]
To categorise participants as POULT, PESC, vegetarians, or vegans, the lowest consumption frequency of the animal food not consumed by the respective diet group was used to define absence of that food from the diet (Additional file 2: Table S3). For example, in the AHS-2 and the China KB, LOV were defined as those who reported consuming dairy products and eggs but reported “never/rarely” for their consumption of red and processed meat, poultry, and fish, because the option “never” was not available on the questionnaires.
[…]
|
Vegans |
Do not consume meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, or eggs |
[…]
The consortium comprises data from 2,337,152 participants, including 81,165 vegetarians and 14,167 vegans (Table 3 and Additional file 2: S4).
[…]
Moreover, the AHS-2 (n = 5,225), EPIC-Ox (n = 1,990), and the China KB (n = 5,110) contributed the largest numbers of vegans.
[…]
In vegans, broadly similar differences in food intakes between studies as in the vegetarians were observed (Additional file 2: Table S7).
[…]
In general, the intakes of nutrients such as protein, total fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, vitamin B12, and vitamin D were higher among OMN compared to vegetarians and vegans (Additional file 2: Table S8). On the other hand, vegans had higher intakes of dietary fibre and vitamin C compared to the other dietary groups, and lower intakes of calcium.
[…]
Among the baseline vegans in the UK cohorts, most participants either continued to follow a vegan diet or were classified as vegetarian. In contrast, in CARRS-1, the majority of baseline vegans were vegetarians at resurvey (80%), while in the China KB the majority of vegans were OMN (65%) at resurvey.
[…]
However, in the AHS-2 and EPIC-Ox, a greater proportion of men compared to women reported that they were vegetarian or vegan.
[…]
Except for the UK WCS and the Mill WS, a higher proportion of participants who were classified as POULT, PESC, vegetarians and vegans were never smokers compared to OMN.
[…]
In general, OMN had a higher mean alcohol intake compared to other diet groups, though such differences were not observed in EPIC-Ox, the UK WCS and the Mill WS. In the AHS-2, EPIC-Ox, the OxVS, NIH-AARP and UK Bio, a higher proportion of participants who were POULT, PESC, vegetarians or vegans showed a high level of physical activity compared to OMN. In CARRS-1, the vegetarians and vegans showed the highest level of physical activity compared to participants in the other diet groups, while in the China KB, a smaller proportion of participants who were PESC were highly active compared to the other diet groups.
[…]
”
Table 8. Percentage of participants with a university degree or equivalent by main diet groups and cohort §
|
Cohort |
OMN |
POULT |
PESC |
All vege $ |
Vegans |
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||
|
AHS-2 |
43.7 |
49.3 |
53.1 |
60.5 |
53.1 |
|
CARRS-1 |
13.6 |
14.6 |
16.1 |
33.6 |
20.6 |
|
CARRS-2 |
15.1 |
18.0 |
11.4 |
34.3 |
13.0 |
|
EPIC-Ox |
36.8 |
43.3 |
50.4 |
47.5 |
45.5 |
|
OxVS # |
11.9 |
- |
8.4 |
8.8 |
6.9 |
|
Tzu Chi HS |
29.9 |
24.2 |
22.8 |
20.0 |
15.9 |
|
UK WCS |
20.9 |
26.7 |
34.3 |
33.0 |
34.4 |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||
|
China KB |
6.0 |
6.1 |
7.6 |
0.80 |
0.33 |
|
Mill WS |
16.3 |
20.3 |
28.6 |
29.5 |
46.8 |
|
NIH-AARP |
61.1 |
69.7 |
73.7 |
79.7 |
81.4 |
|
UK Bio |
58.8 |
60.8 |
74.9 |
70.6 |
71.0 |
|
All cohorts combined |
33.8 |
55.7 |
47.8 |
39.4 |
30.7 |
AHS-2: Adventist Health Study-2; CARRS, Centre for cArdiometabolic Risk Reduction in South Asia; China KB: China Kadoorie Biobank; EPIC, European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition; EPIC-Ox: EPIC-Oxford; LOV: lacto-ovo-vegetarians; LV: lacto-vegetarians; Mill WS: Million Women Study; NIH-AARP, National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study; OMN: omnivores (meat eaters); OV: ovo-vegetarians; OxVS: Oxford Vegetarian Study; PESC: pescatarians; POULT: poultry eaters; Tzu Chi HS: Tzu Chi Health Study; UK Bio: UK Biobank; UK WCS: UK Women’s Cohort Study
§ Values are % within diet group in the specified cohort
$ All vege: includes LOV, LV, and OV
# In the OxVS, POULT could not be determined as poultry intake was not assessed
“-” indicates that no information was available for educational status in the specified cohort
Table 9. Lifestyle factors by main diet groups and cohort
|
Cohort |
OMN |
POULT |
PESC |
All vege $ |
Vegans |
|
Never smokers, % |
|||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||
|
AHS-2 |
71.7 |
80.2 |
82.9 |
87.9 |
83.6 |
|
CARRS-1 |
74.3 |
78.4 |
88.9 |
86.7 |
80.5 |
|
CARRS-2 |
81.6 |
84.7 |
91.0 |
89.1 |
89.4 |
|
EPIC-Ox |
57.1 |
61.7 |
59.2 |
63.0 |
61.8 |
|
OxVSb |
47.4 |
- |
48.9 |
53.3 |
54.4 |
|
Tzu Chi HS |
78.7 |
83.3 |
90.6 |
92.4 |
93.2 |
|
UK Women's Cohort Study |
56.7 |
51.3 |
52.2 |
56.3 |
58.1 |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||
|
China KB |
61.4 |
68.7 |
74.1 |
70.7 |
74.2 |
|
Mill WS |
54.3 |
54.5 |
54.5 |
57.3 |
49.4 |
|
NIH-AARP |
34.4 |
42.8 |
42.4 |
53.7 |
46.6 |
|
UK Bio |
54.4 |
59.3 |
56.8 |
64.3 |
55.8 |
|
All cohorts combined |
51.8 |
55.4 |
59.8 |
69.3 |
74.8 |
|
Alcohol intake (g/day), mean (SD) |
|||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||
|
AHS-2 |
0.7 (2.9) |
0.3 (1.7) |
0.2 (1.6) |
0.1 (1.0) |
0.0 (0.5) |
|
CARRS-1 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
CARRS-2 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
EPIC-Ox |
9.9 (12.9) |
7.6 (9.5) |
9.9 (12.3) |
9.3 (12.6) |
8.2 (13.3) |
|
OxVSb |
11.3 (11.0) |
- |
8.3 (9.1) |
6.9 (9.2) |
5.6 (9.1) |
|
Tzu Chi HS |
1.8 (11.8) |
0.3 (2.4) |
0.5 (4.3) |
0.1 (1.3) |
0.4 (2.8) |
|
UK Women's Cohort Study |
9.1 (10.4) |
7.2 (9.2) |
8.7 (9.8) |
7.3 (9.8) |
6.4 (10.7) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||
|
China KB |
8.0 (23.7) |
6.4 (22.8) |
4.4 (16.3) |
1.1 (8.7) |
0.9 (9.2) |
|
Mill WS |
6.0 (7.6) |
4.7 (7.1) |
5.7 (7.6) |
4.7 (7.2) |
4.3 (7.1) |
|
NIH-AARP |
11.4 (24.9) |
5.4 (13.6) |
5.8 (15.4) |
3.7 (12.6) |
3.8 (16.2) |
|
UK Bio |
15.0 (19.3) |
8.0 (12.0) |
11.0 (14.3) |
8.7 (14.7) |
6.8 (12.6) |
|
All cohorts combined |
9.6 (19.3) |
4.8 (12.1) |
7.2 (11.0) |
4.3 (9.4) |
2.1 (8.4) |
|
Highly active, % |
|||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||
|
AHS-2 |
38.1 |
45.3 |
48.0 |
46.9 |
51.2 |
|
CARRS-1 |
16.7 |
11.5 |
6.1 |
41.3 |
34.1 |
|
CARRS-2 |
2.5 |
2.2 |
1.2 |
1.1 |
1.9 |
|
EPIC-Ox |
10.1 |
14.6 |
15.5 |
15.3 |
21.4 |
|
OxVS # |
27.2 |
- |
36.2 |
33.4 |
42.0 |
|
Tzu Chi HS |
33.9 |
40.0 |
36.9 |
30.7 |
29.6 |
|
UK Women's Cohort Study |
3.3 |
4.0 |
3.2 |
4.0 |
1.9 |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||
|
China KB |
33.4 |
28.8 |
19.6 |
33.5 |
36.0 |
|
Mill WS |
9.4 |
13.3 |
13.2 |
13.6 |
22.8 |
|
NIH-AARP |
18.4 |
29.0 |
30.2 |
30.8 |
50.0 |
|
UK Bio |
18.6 |
23.9 |
21.0 |
19.1 |
23.7 |
|
All cohorts combined |
33.0 |
30.8 |
32.1 |
31.3 |
38.6 |
AHS-2: Adventist Health Study-2; CARRS, Centre for cArdiometabolic Risk Reduction in South Asia; China KB: China Kadoorie Biobank; EPIC, European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition; EPIC-Ox: EPIC-Oxford; LOV: lacto-ovo-vegetarians; LV: lacto-vegetarians; Mill WS: Million Women Study; NIH-AARP, National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study; OMN: omnivores (meat eaters); OV: ovo-vegetarians; OxVS: Oxford Vegetarian Study; PESC: pescatarians; POULT: poultry eaters; Tzu Chi HS: Tzu Chi Health Study; UK Bio: UK Biobank; UK WCS: UK Women’s Cohort Study
# In the OxVS, POULT could not be determined as poultry intake was not assessed
$ All vege: includes LOV, LV, and OV
“-” indicates that no information was available for this variable in the specified cohort
“
[…]
In recent years, vegetarian and vegan diets have become more popular in Western countries, and this is likely motivated by self-choice due to ethical, environmental and health concerns [28, 29].
[…]
In the China KB, the substantial number of participants classified as vegetarians and vegans might not be attributed to personal choices, such as health or religious beliefs. Instead, this may be related to socioeconomic status, poverty, and affordability [35]. For instance, in this cohort, the OMN, POULT, and PESC were more likely to have a university degree or equivalent (and higher income; findings not shown) compared to the vegetarians and vegans. We also found that vegetarians and vegans in this cohort were mostly from two rural regions of China (Gansu and Henan), while PESC were mainly from two coastal regions (Qingdao and Harbin; findings not shown).
[…]
Differences in sex, sociodemographic, and lifestyle factors by diet groups in the different cohorts
Comparisons across the individual cohorts showed that PESC, vegetarians, and vegans in studies from the UK, US, and India were more likely to have a university degree or equivalent than the OMN within the same cohort. These findings are in alignment with cross-sectional analyses in a random sample of Germans [36] and Finnish adults [37], and in the French NutriNet-Santé study [38].
Differences in sex distribution across the diet groups within each individual study were observed. In most of the cohorts, there was a higher proportion of women in the vegetarian diet group while a higher proportion of men were OMN. These findings are in line with previous research in France and Germany [36, 38], which also showed that women typically consume less meat and are more likely to follow a vegetarian or vegan diet.
BMI differences across diet groups and studies
In the UK and US cohorts, OMN had a higher average BMI, while vegans followed by vegetarians had the lowest. The consumption of red and processed meat may be associated with having a greater body weight; a meta-analysis of 18 studies, mainly from Western countries, showed a positive association with obesity [39]. The EPIC-Europe study, which included 373,803 men and women, found that higher intakes of total meat, red meat, processed meat, and poultry were associated with greater weight gain over 5 years of follow-up [40]. Dietary differences between OMN and vegetarians/vegans, such as higher intakes of fibre and lower intakes of protein, may contribute to the latter group's lower BMI [41, 42].
When comparing the BMI of vegetarians and vegans across the different studies, those in CARRS-1 and CARRS-2 had the highest mean BMI.
[…]
Unlike the patterns observed in the other cohorts, in the China KB the great majority of baseline vegetarians and vegans reported consuming meat at follow-up (69% and 65%, respectively). This shift coincided with an improvement in socioeconomic status among these participants, as indicated by their reported income in the follow-up questionnaire (findings not shown). Moreover, there was a substantial increase in meat consumption in China during this period, unlike in most high-income countries where meat consumption has plateaued or decreased [46, 47]. This further supports the interpretation that vegetarians and vegans in the China KB were more likely to report very low or no meat consumption at baseline due to economic constraints, rather than intentionally adhering to a vegetarian diet. Moreover, as previously discussed, the participants in this cohort classified as vegetarians at baseline may have occasionally consumed both meat and fish because they reported eating these foods less than monthly due to the design of the FFQ. These findings show the importance of carefully considering the stability of diet groups over time when conducting analyses of the associations of diet group with long-term health outcomes.
Strengths and limitations
These analyses have several strengths. This consortium will provide the largest collection of observational data on vegetarian and vegan diets and the risk of individual cancer sites available. The consortium includes participants from Western Europe, North America, South Asia and East Asia. While CARRS-1, CARRS-2 and the Tzu Chi HS do not include large numbers of participants, they offer valuable insights for this research on vegetarian and vegan diets because food intakes in these areas differ markedly from those in studies conducted in the UK and the US.
[…]
[...] participants classified as vegetarians or vegans may occasionally consume the relevant animal foods.
[…]
Conclusions
In this consortium, which harmonised data from 11 prospective cohort studies, food intakes among vegetarians varied between studies. This variation may be attributed to differences in culture, socioeconomic status, and the specific dietary assessment tools used in each cohort. Vegetarians and vegans were found to have a lower BMI and higher educational status in comparison to regular [OMN], showing a gradient across the other diet groups; however, this pattern was not observed in some of the Asian cohorts. In general, vegetarians had lower alcohol intake, a higher proportion of individuals who had never smoked, and higher physical activity when compared to [OMN]. The data harmonised will be used in future analyses to assess the prospective associations between vegetarian diets and risks of site-specific cancer.[…]
"
"Fig. 3 Mean (95% CI) body mass index by diet group in (A) cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians and (B) very large cohorts.
From Supplementary material 2:
"[…]
Table S4. Number of participants in each diet group by sex and cohort (n = 2,337,152) |
||||||||
|
Cohort |
OMN |
POULT |
PESC |
LOV |
LV |
OV |
Vegan |
|
|
Women, N (%) |
||||||||
|
Cohorts with large
proportions of vegetarians |
||||||||
|
AHS-2 |
14,711 (34.9) |
7,451 (17.7) |
4,215 (10.0) |
8,156 (19.3) |
3,826 (9.1) |
446 (1.1) |
3,389 (8.0) |
|
|
CARRS-1 |
3,561 (55.9) |
1,036 (16.3) |
123 (1.9) |
199 (3.1) |
1,113 (17.5) |
56 (0.88) |
284 (4.5) |
|
|
CARRS-2 |
2,292 (45.3) |
1,077 (21.3) |
111 (2.2) |
159 (3.1) |
1,249 (24.7) |
29 (0.57) |
148 (2.9) |
|
|
EPIC-Ox |
20,156 (48.8) |
1,404 (3.4) |
6,685 (16.2) |
8,708 (21.1) |
3,046 (7.4) |
74 (0.18) |
1,262 (3.1) |
|
|
OxVS # |
2,939 (45.4) |
- |
724 (11.2) |
2,367 (36.5) |
232 (3.6) |
38 (0.59) |
180 (2.8) |
|
|
Tzu Chi HS |
1,827 (54.9) |
84 (2.5) |
162 (4.9) |
967 (29.0) |
183 (5.5) |
73 (2.2) |
33 (0.99) |
|
|
UK WCS |
21,180 (70.3) |
929 (3.1) |
3,804 (12.6) |
3,300 (10.9) |
743 (2.5) |
32 (0.11) |
160 (0.53) |
|
|
Very large cohort studies |
||||||||
|
China KB |
284,030 (94.4) |
1,302 (0.43) |
1,290 (0.43) |
1,536 (0.51) |
563 (0.19) |
8,504 (2.8) |
3,684 (1.2) |
|
|
Mill WS |
618,450 (96.8) |
3,414 (0.53) |
10,947 (1.7) |
5,361 (0.84) |
742 (0.12) |
33 (0.01) |
79 (0.01) |
|
|
NIH-AARP |
193,341 (89.5) |
20,664 (9.6) |
981 (0.45) |
483 (0.22) |
370 (0.17) |
10 (0.00) |
56 (0.03) |
|
|
UK Bio |
237,928 (93.1) |
4,100 (1.6) |
7,692 (3.0) |
4,778 (1.9) |
575 (0.23) |
117 (0.05) |
264 (0.10) |
|
|
Total |
1,400,415 (90.6) |
41,461 (2.7) |
36,734 (2.4) |
36,014 (2.3) |
12,642 (0.82) |
9,412 (0.61) |
9,539 (0.62) |
|
|
Men, N (%) |
||||||||
|
Cohorts with large
proportions of vegetarians |
||||||||
|
AHS-2 |
8,534 (38.2) |
3,043 (13.6) |
1,987 (8.9) |
4,642 (20.8) |
2,089 (9.3) |
230 (1.0) |
1,836 (8.2) |
|
|
CARRS-1 |
3,653 (62.5) |
922 (15.8) |
57 (0.98) |
166 (2.8) |
807 (13.8) |
73 (1.2) |
168 (2.9) |
|
|
CARRS-2 |
2,494 (55.9) |
861 (19.3) |
56 (1.3) |
164 (3.7) |
812 (18.2) |
18 (0.40) |
60 (1.3) |
|
|
EPIC-Ox |
6,342 (51.1) |
299 (2.4) |
1,443 (11.6) |
2,682 (21.6) |
902 (7.3) |
21 (0.17) |
728 (5.9) |
|
|
OxVS # |
2,241 (55.4) |
- |
274 (6.8) |
1,209 (29.9) |
156 (3.9) |
14 (0.35) |
153 (3.8) |
|
|
Tzu Chi HS |
1,692 (77.2) |
36 (1.6) |
71 (3.2) |
310 (14.1) |
51 (2.3) |
20 (0.91) |
11 (0.50) |
|
|
Very large cohort studies |
||||||||
|
China KB |
201,766 (96.4) |
647 (0.31) |
413 (0.20) |
916 (0.44) |
167 (0.08) |
3,901 (1.9) |
1,426 (0.68) |
|
|
NIH-AARP |
297,757 (95.5) |
12,296 (3.9) |
709 (0.23) |
486 (0.16) |
472 (0.15) |
4 (0.00) |
62 (0.02) |
|
|
UK Bio |
211,243 (96.6) |
1,338 (0.61) |
3,036 (1.4) |
|
2,362 (1.1) |
365 (0.17) |
58 (0.03) |
184 (0.08) |
|
Total |
735,722 (93.0) |
19,442 (2.5) |
8,046 (1.0) |
|
12,937 (1.6) |
5,821 (0.74) |
4,339 (0.55) |
4,628 (0.59) |
|
Abbreviations: AHS-2: Adventist Health
Study-2; CARRS, Centre for cArdiometabolic Risk Reduction in South Asia; China
KB: China Kadoorie Biobank; EPIC, European Prospective Investigation into
Cancer and Nutrition; EPIC-Ox: EPIC-Oxford; LOV: lacto-ovo-vegetarians; LV:
lacto-vegetarians; Mill WS: Million Women Study; NIH-AARP, National
Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study; OMN: omnivores (meat
eaters); OV: ovo-vegetarians; OxVS: Oxford Vegetarian Study; PESC:
pescatarians; POULT: poultry eaters; Tzu Chi HS: Tzu Chi Health Study; UK
Bio: UK Biobank; UK WCS: UK Women’s Cohort Study
# In the OxVS, POULT could
not be determined as poultry intake was not assessed. |
||||||||
[...]
|
Table S8. Baseline nutrient intakes by diet group and
cohort (where nutrient data were available) § |
|||||||
|
Cohort |
OMN |
POULT |
PESC |
LOV |
LV |
OV |
Vegan |
|
|
Energy, kcal/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
1,799 (681) |
1,720 (653) |
1,790 (668) |
1,797 (635) |
1,745 (636) |
1,711 (653) |
1,760 (646) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
1,992 (536) |
1,825 (530) |
1,896 (528) |
1,923 (529) |
1,769 (515) |
1,586 (459) |
1,752 (555) |
|
UK WCS |
2,226 (549) |
2,160 (561) |
2,228 (563) |
2,223 (555) |
2,048 (607) |
2,195 (639) |
2,100 (613) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
1,663 (420) |
1,492 (410) |
1,585 (412) |
1,567 (413) |
1,387 (442) |
1,394 (420) |
1,178 (308) |
|
NIH-AARP |
1,822 (669) |
1,370 (533) |
1,555 (629) |
1,629 (622) |
1,619 (618) |
1,446 (751) |
1,604 (637) |
|
|
Protein, g/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
68.9 (28.4) |
64.8 (27.4) |
65.9 (28.3) |
63.8 (25.7) |
62.1 (26.4) |
57.8 (24.5) |
62.0 (26.1) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
82.3 (21.6) |
72.5 (20.6) |
67.7 (19.2) |
64.1 (17.7) |
58.2 (17.8) |
50.6 (14.6) |
56.7 (19.0) |
|
UK WCS |
89.9 (23.3) |
80.1 (22.1) |
77.3 (21.1) |
73.6 (19.6) |
65.8 (20.8) |
68.9 (20.5) |
65.1 (21.2) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
67.0 (17.2) |
56.0 (16.0) |
57.4 (15.0) |
50.8 (13.8) |
42.1 (14.3) |
40.3 (12.0) |
33.7 (10.8) |
|
NIH-AARP |
70.0 (28.4) |
51.0 (23.2) |
50.9 (23.6) |
49.4 (22.4) |
48.6 (22.0) |
41.9 (25.3) |
45.8 (20.3) |
|
|
Carbohydrates, g/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
238 (101) |
243 (102) |
258 (105) |
251 (95) |
260 (102) |
256 (103) |
274 (106) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
248 (74) |
244 (76) |
252 (74) |
260 (74) |
249 (75) |
231 (74) |
252 (79) |
|
UK WCS |
290 (81) |
303 (85) |
306 (85) |
309 (86) |
296 (93) |
316 (87) |
308 (96) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
207 (58) |
201 (60) |
208 (58) |
216 (60) |
203 (63) |
214 (73) |
178 (52) |
|
NIH-AARP |
233 (91) |
217 (93) |
249 (105) |
258 (99) |
271 (108) |
260 (150) |
293 (120) |
|
|
Total fat, g/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
69.2 (32.1) |
61.3 (29.5) |
62.9 (30.6) |
67.5 (29.5) |
59.1 (27.3) |
59.3 (32.2) |
56.0 (28.1) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
72.4 (26.4) |
61.7 (25.3) |
66.8 (25.7) |
68.1 (26.0) |
59.8 (25.5) |
51.8 (20.8) |
56.8 (26.9) |
|
UK WCS |
80.2 (25.7) |
73.2 (25.9) |
79.4 (26.7) |
80.0 (26.4) |
71.1 (28.4) |
78.1 (31.7) |
70.9 (29.4) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
63.2 (21.7) |
52.5 (20.5) |
58.2 (21.5) |
56.4 (21.1) |
47.2 (21.8) |
44.0 (19.8) |
37.3 (15.3) |
|
NIH-AARP |
63.0 (29.5) |
33.8 (17.6) |
41.2 (23.7) |
48.0 (26.5) |
42.0 (23.1) |
33.0 (16.3) |
33.4 (21.9) |
|
|
Saturated fat, g/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
19.4 (10.0) |
15.0 (7.9) |
14.3 (7.9) |
16.3 (8.0) |
12.5 (6.3) |
10.7 (5.4) |
9.8 (4.9) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
26.7 (11.6) |
20.9 (10.4) |
23.1 (10.9) |
24.1 (10.9) |
20.5 (10.7) |
12.1 (5.4) |
13.2 (6.9) |
|
UK WCS |
28.4 (11.0) |
23.6 (10.3) |
25.8 (10.7) |
26.6 (10.9) |
21.8 (11.5) |
16.2 (7.3) |
13.4 (6.2) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
22.1 (9.9) |
17.6 (8.9) |
20.0 (9.4) |
20.8 (9.5) |
16.5 (9.9) |
10.0 (4.0) |
8.2 (3.8) |
|
NIH-AARP |
19.8 (10.2) |
9.7 (5.6) |
11.8 (7.7) |
14.3 (9.0) |
12.2 (8.0) |
7.3 (3.8) |
7.2 (4.2) |
|
|
Monounsaturated fat, g/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
27.8 (14.4) |
25.4 (14.2) |
26.7 (15.3) |
27.9 (13.9) |
25.1 (13.4) |
26.7 (18.4) |
24.9 (14.9) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
24.5 (9.5) |
20.4 (9.0) |
21.6 (8.9) |
21.8 (9.2) |
19.0 (9.1) |
17.7 (9.0) |
19.0 (10.6) |
|
UK WCS |
26.5 (8.8) |
23.6 (9.1) |
25.7 (9.4) |
25.6 (9.2) |
22.4 (9.8) |
24.2 (10.2) |
22.2 (10.8) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
23.1 (8.4) |
19.2 (8.2) |
21.2 (8.5) |
19.9 (8.3) |
17.1 (8.6) |
18.1 (10.0) |
15.9 (7.4) |
|
NIH-AARP |
23.8 (11.5) |
12.2 (6.8) |
15.1 (9.2) |
17.9 (10.5) |
15.5 (9.0) |
12.4 (6.8) |
12.6 (9.5) |
|
|
Polyunsaturated fat, g/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
16.5 (8.0) |
16.1 (8.0) |
17.2 (8.4) |
18.3 (8.3) |
17.1 (8.2) |
17.6 (8.8) |
17.0 (8.5) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
14.3 (6.3) |
13.8 (6.5) |
15.0 (6.8) |
15.1 (7.0) |
13.8 (7.0) |
16.3 (6.6) |
18.4 (9.2) |
|
UK WCS |
14.8 (5.3) |
15.8 (6.5) |
16.9 (6.4) |
16.7 (6.5) |
15.9 (7.2) |
22.5 (9.2) |
21.5 (9.5) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
11.8 (4.7) |
10.0 (4.4) |
10.9 (4.6) |
10.0 (4.3) |
8.8 (4.6) |
12.3 (5.5) |
10.1 (4.1) |
|
NIH-AARP |
14.3 (7.0) |
9.0 (5.1) |
11.0 (6.6) |
12.2 (7.2) |
11.1 (6.7) |
10.3 (5.1) |
10.5 (7.5) |
|
|
Dietary fibre, g/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
26.5 (13.2) |
31.1 (14.8) |
35.6 (16.5) |
33.1 (14.1) |
37.1 (15.8) |
38.5 (16.1) |
43.2 (17.3) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
18.6 (6.7) |
20.7 (7.5) |
21.2 (7.6) |
21.5 (7.5) |
21.8 (8.3) |
23.7 (8.5) |
26.1 (9.3) |
|
UK WCS |
23.0 (8.3) |
27.4 (9.7) |
27.3 (9.2) |
27.3 (9.1) |
26.9 (10.1) |
32.0 (9.3) |
31.6 (10.8) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
13.8 (4.7) |
14.6 (5.1) |
15.7 (5.2) |
16.3 (5.4) |
15.6 (6.5) |
19.9 (6.8) |
17.9 (5.6) |
|
NIH-AARP |
18.9 (8.7) |
20.7 (11.0) |
26.6 (14.6) |
27.2 (13.3) |
29.4 (14.6) |
34.2 (22.9) |
40.7 (17.8) |
|
|
Vitamin C, mg/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
152 (109) |
181 (122) |
201 (133) |
170 (103) |
188 (121) |
187 (129) |
206 (129) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
132 (63) |
146 (73) |
144 (69) |
142 (69) |
146 (77) |
151 (74) |
163 (93) |
|
UK WCS |
162 (74) |
178 (81) |
175 (81) |
173 (80) |
169 (89) |
189 (88) |
203 (116) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
96 (47) |
104 (54) |
112 (54) |
116 (57) |
114 (67) |
146 (74) |
138 (59) |
|
NIH-AARP |
156 (107) |
182 (130) |
203 (145) |
203 (130) |
212 (138) |
178 (149) |
305 (197) |
|
|
Vitamin B12, µg/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
4.0 (2.6) |
3.6 (3.0) |
3.6 (2.9) |
3.4 (2.7) |
2.8 (2.8) |
2.1 (2.6) |
1.9 (2.6) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
7.1 (3.4) |
5.7 (2.7) |
4.9 (2.7) |
2.7 (1.3) |
2.0 (1.2) |
0.7 (0.4) |
0.4 (0.6) |
|
UK WCS |
6.5 (2.8) |
4.4 (2.1) |
4.1 (2.1) |
2.6 (1.1) |
1.9 (1.1) |
1.1 (1.1) |
0.8 (0.6) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
4.6 (2.3) |
3.7 (1.9) |
3.9 (1.9) |
2.0 (0.9) |
1.4 (0.9) |
0.6 (0.4) |
0.2 (0.5) |
|
NIH-AARP |
4.8 (3.1) |
2.8 (1.9) |
2.6 (2.0) |
2.1 (1.8) |
1.9 (1.9) |
0.7 (0.6) |
0.5 (0.6) |
|
|
Folate, µg/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
468 (229) |
514 (248) |
573 (274) |
549 (250) |
591 (291) |
591 (321) |
667 (341) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
323 (100) |
329 (107) |
346 (112) |
357 (117) |
344 (128) |
383 (129) |
419 (159) |
|
UK WCS |
379 (112) |
405 (123) |
404 (122) |
405 (121) |
383 (137) |
433 (124) |
453 (159) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
251 (70) |
245 (74) |
262 (78) |
269 (81) |
243 (94) |
289 (86) |
250 (84) |
|
NIH-AARP |
408 (170) |
405 (198) |
506 (259) |
508 (232) |
546 (250) |
549 (327) |
705 (309) |
|
|
Vitamin D, µg/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
4.0 (3.2) |
3.2 (3.2) |
2.9 (2.9) |
2.2 (2.7) |
1.4 (2.5) |
0.7 (1.3) |
0.6 (1.9) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
3.3 (1.9) |
3.1 (2.0) |
2.8 (2.0) |
1.6 (1.2) |
1.2 (1.1) |
1.2 (1.1) |
0.9 (1.0) |
|
UK WCS |
3.2 (1.5) |
3.1 (1.9) |
3.0 (1.9) |
1.9 (1.1) |
1.4 (0.9) |
2.1 (1.6) |
1.4 (1.2) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
3.1 (1.7) |
3.1 (2.0) |
3.1 (2.0) |
1.4 (1.0) |
1.0 (1.1) |
1.0 (0.6) |
0.6 (0.5) |
|
NIH-AARP |
4.6 (3.1) |
3.6 (3.0) |
3.3 (3.1) |
2.8 (3.5) |
2.5 (3.3) |
0.6 (0.5) |
0.5 (0.5) |
|
|
Calcium, mg/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
776 (401) |
734 (385) |
730 (365) |
752 (361) |
675 (340) |
552 (239) |
609 (273) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
1,007 (312) |
969 (348) |
1,031 (348) |
1,069 (363) |
932 (364) |
523 (190) |
590 (237) |
|
UK WCS |
1,095 (328) |
1,109 (354) |
1,149 (372) |
1,153 (357) |
997 (379) |
712 (253) |
686 (240) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
836 (284) |
799 (304) |
876 (315) |
893 (316) |
723 (331) |
378 (136) |
328 (155) |
|
NIH-AARP |
767 (420) |
700 (409) |
745 (425) |
801 (507) |
776 (507) |
423 (291) |
551 (252) |
|
|
Iron, mg/day |
||||||
|
Cohorts with large proportions of vegetarians |
|||||||
|
AHS-2 |
16.1 (7.7) |
16.9 (8.0) |
18.4 (8.6) |
18.0 (7.9) |
19.0 (8.6) |
18.4 (8.7) |
20.1 (9.0) |
|
EPIC-Ox |
12.4 (3.5) |
12.2 (3.7) |
12.6 (3.8) |
12.7 (3.8) |
12.2 (4.1) |
13.1 (4.0) |
14.3 (4.6) |
|
UK WCS |
17.2 (6.5) |
18.0 (7.0) |
17.8 (6.6) |
17.6 (6.4) |
16.7 (7.0) |
18.8 (5.5) |
19.6 (6.5) |
|
Very large cohorts |
|||||||
|
Mill WS |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
NIH-AARP |
14.9 (6.0) |
13.3 (6.3) |
15.1 (7.1) |
15.3 (6.8) |
16.4 (7.6) |
17.1 (13.1) |
19.2 (8.7) |
|
Abbreviations: AHS-2: Adventist Health Study-2; CARRS, Centre for
cArdiometabolic Risk Reduction in South Asia; China KB: China Kadoorie
Biobank; EPIC, European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition;
EPIC-Ox: EPIC-Oxford; LOV: lacto-ovo-vegetarians; LV: lacto-vegetarians; Mill
WS: Million Women Study; NIH-AARP, National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet
and Health Study; OMN: omnivores (meat eaters); OV: ovo-vegetarians; OxVS:
Oxford Vegetarian Study; PESC: pescatarians; POULT: poultry eaters; Tzu Chi
HS: Tzu Chi Health Study; UK Bio: UK Biobank; UK WCS: UK Women’s Cohort Study § All values are mean (SD). “-” indicates that no information was available. |
|||||||
[...]"