Näringsrekommendationer för veganer (Swedish)


Märk väl att rekommendationerna är allmänna riktlinjer, och behöver inte följas till punkt och pricka.

1) Vitamin B12

Välj ett av följande alternativ (44, 77, 79, 90):
  • 2–5 µg två gånger per dag (via berikade livsmedel eller som kosttillskott) (8, 9, 42, 53, 62, 33, 35)
  • 10–50 µg per dag i form av kosttillskott (1, 9, 10, 18, 33, 35)
  • 2000–2500 µg per vecka i form av kosttillskott (6, 20, 35, 42, 61)


2) Kalcium

Man behöver ett kalciumintag på minst 600 mg per dag (2, 3, 22 25, 54, 59, 60, 70, 77, 82, 83).
Välj åtminstone ett av följande alternativ dagligen. Men i de flesta länder är kalciumrekommendationen runt 1000 mg. Denna högre mängd kan vara bättre för att skydda ben. Därför är det tillrådligt att konsumera cirka två portioner från följande lista per dag.
  • 1 glas berikad växtmjölk (t.ex. sojamjölk). (Näringsförteckningen ska ange ett innehåll på 120 mg kalcium per 100 ml – vilket är lika mycket som i komjölk) (54, 57, 68, 83, 89)
  • andra kalciumberikade produkter såsom juice, sojayoghurt, havreflingor, bröd (54, 68, 83)
  • ~200–400 g tillagade mörkgröna bladgrönsaker, som olika typer av bladkål – grönkål, kruskål osv. – pak choi, broccoli, rovblast som i många länder äts traditionellt, maskrosblad, nässlor... (Inte spenat och mangold! Ät dem gärna. Men de är inte bra som kalciumkällor.)
  • ~500 g rå eller tillagad kinakål
  • ~200 g tofu som framställts med kalcium (54, 57, 68, 83, 89)
  • "hårt", dvs. kalciumrikt vatten/mineralvatten, som bör tillföra minst 300 mg kalcium per dag – läs förteckningen (7, 87)
  • ~6 (~100 g) torkade fikon + 3 apelsiner (54)


3) D-vitamin

Sommartid:
  • 15–30 minuter i solen mitt på dagen, varje dag – eller mer sol mindre ofta. Se upp så att du inte bränner dig!
eller
  • kosttillskott – gäller också hela vinterhalvåret.
Vintertid:
  • ~25 µg (~1000 IU) D-vitamin dagligen i form av kosttillskott (38, 47, 54, 64, 66, 77, 78, 83, 85, 86)
"Vinter" betyder i termer av D-vitamin den period när kroppen inte kan tillverka vitaminet med hjälp av solljus. Hur länge denna vinter räcker eller om den alls infaller beror på vilka breddgrader man bor på.
  • mellan 35° nord och 35° syd: Ingen D-vitaminvinter alls – kroppen kan tillverka D-vitamin året om när huden exponeras för solljus (43).
  • mellan 35° och 40° nord: december–januari
  • mellan 40° och 50° nord: november till februari
  • nordligare än 50° nord: oktober till mars (eller längre)
  • mellan 35° och 40° syd: juni–juli
  • mellan 40° och 50° syd: maj till augusti
  • söder om 50° syd: april till september (eller längre)


4) Jod

Välj ett av följande alternativ (15, 24, 27, 46, 48, 49, 50, 45, 47, 69, 77, 79):
  • 100–200 µg dagligen i form av kosttillskott 
  • alger, t.ex. nori eller wakame, flera gånger i veckan 
  • jodhaltigt salt (1 tesked innehåller 40–240 µg jod – kolla på förpackningen) (28, 71, 93)

5) Omega-3-fettsyror

Välj ett av följande alternativ (eller en kombination av dem) dagligen (2, 16, 19, 26, 34, 68, 72, 76). Följande rekommendationer gäller män – som generellt sett har ett högre kalorieintag. För kvinnor räcker det med något mindre.
  • ~10 valnötter (=20 valnötshalvor; ~40 g)
  • 1–2 tsk linfröolja
  • 2 msk krossade linfrön (16, 17, 32)
  • 2–3 matskedar ryps- eller rapsolja
  • 1–2 msk chiafrön (23, 58, 76, 84)
  • 1–2 msk hampfröolja
  • ca 0,5 dl hampafrön, or 1–2 matskedar skalade hampafrön
Alternativt (det finns dock inte mycket empiriskt underlag för att rekommendera detta åt 
veganer):
Halvera ovanstående mängder, och lägg till ett DHA-kosttillskott:
  • 200–300 mg DHA varannan eller var tredje dag (13, 16, 29, 34, 72, 73, 74, 76)

6) Järn

Ät baljväxter (31, 70, 88).
Andra tips:
  • Genom att få i sig C-vitamin i samband med en järnrik måltid ökar upptaget av järnet i vegetabilier (14, 30, 40, 41, 68, 88).
  • Dricker man kaffe eller te i samband med måltider minskar järnupptaget (14, 30, 39, 40, 41).
  • Tillagar man tomatsås (eller andra såser som är något syrliga) i gjutjärnskärl ökar järninnehållet i såsen (39, 40, 67, 73).

7) Zink

Ät baljväxter, nötter och frön (4, 68, 75, 77).

8) Selen

Välj (enbart) ett av följande alternativ (36, 37, 47, 51):
  • 1–2 paranötter dagligen (11, 12, 21, 56, 81)

  • 50–60 µg selen i form av kosttillskott dagligen (selenmetionin) (5, 21, 63, 80, 81, 91, 92)
I Finland används selenberikat gödsel. I snitt får finländska veganer därför i sig mer selen än veganer i övriga Europa och generellt får de finländska veganerna i sig tillräckligt med selen. Så veganer i Finland som regelbundet äter spannmålsprodukter (från konventionell, dvs icke-ekologisk, produktion) behöver inte bekymra sig om selenrekommendationerna. (24)

9) A-vitamin (provitamin A i vegetabilier)

Ät mycket mörkgröna grönsaker och orangea frukter och grönsaker (45, 65).
Utmärkta källor är t.ex. kokta eller stekta morötter, morotsjuice, pumpa, orange sötpotatis och mörkgröna bladgrönsaker.

10) Protein

Ät baljväxter, fullkornsprodukter, nötter och frön, särskilt baljväxter (52, 55).


[Translated by the fabulous Barbro Nordling]


Referenser

1. Adams JF, Ross SK, Mervyn L, Boddy K, King P: Absorption of cyanocobalamin, coenzyme B12, methylcobalamin, and hydroxocobalamin at different dose levels. Scand J Gastroenterol 6: 249–252 (1971)

2. Appleby PN, Key TJ: The long-term health of vegetarians and vegans. Proc Nutr Soc 75: 287–293 (2016)

3. Appleby P, Roddam A, Allen N, Key T: Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford. Eur J Clin Nutr 61: 1400–1406 (2007)

4. Ball MJ, Ackland ML: Zinc intake and status in Australian vegetarians. Br J Nutr 83: 27–33 (2000)

5. Benstoem C, Goetzenich A, Kraemer S, Borosch S, Manzanares W, Hardy G, Stoppe C: Selenium and its supplementation in cardiovascular disease – what do we know? Nutrients 7: 3094–3118 (2015)

6. Berlin H, Berlin R, Brante G: Oral treatment of pernicious anemia with high doses of vitamin B12 without intrinsic factor. Acta Med Scand 184: 247–258 (1968)

7. Böhmer H, Müller H, Resch KL: Calcium supplementation with calcium-rich mineral waters: a systematic review and meta-analysis of its bioavailability. Osteoporos Int 11: 938–943 (2000)

8. Bor MV, von Castel-Roberts KM, Kauwell GPA, Stabler SP, Allen RH, Maneval DR, Bailey LB, Nexo E: Daily intake of 4 to 7 µg dietary vitamin B-12 is associated with steady concentrations of vitamin B-12-related biomarkers in a healthy young population. Am J Clin Nutr 91: 571–577 (2010)

9. Carmel R: Cobalamin (Vitamin B12). In: Shils ME, Shike M, Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ (eds): Modern nutrition in health and disease. 10th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 482–497 (2006)

10. Carmel R: Mandatory fortification of the food supply with cobalamin: an idea whose time has not yet come. J Inherit Metab Dis 34: 67–73 (2011)

11. Colpo E, de Avila Vilanova CD, Brenner Reetz LG, Medeiros Frescura Duarte MM, Gomes Farias IL, Irineu Muller E, Hermes Muller AL, Moraes Flores EM, Wagner R, Batista Teixeira da Rocha J: A single consumption of high amounts of the Brazil nuts improves lipid profile of healthy volunteers. J Nutr Metab. Article ID 653185 (2013)

12. Colpo E, Vilanova CDDA, Reetz LGB, Duarte MMMF, Farias ILG, Meinerz DF, Mariano DOC, Vendrusculo RG, Boligon AA, dalla Corte CL, Wagner R, Athayde ML, Batista T. da Rocha J: Brazilian nut consumption by healthy volunteers improves inflammatory parameters. Nutrition 30: 459–465 (2014)

13. Cottin SC, Sanders TA, Hall WL: Postgraduate symposium. The differential effects of EPA and DHA on cardiovascular risk factors. Proc Nutr Soc 70: 215–231 (2011)

14. Craig WJ: Iron status of vegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr 59(suppl): 1233S–1237S (1994)

15. Davidsson L: Are vegetarians an ‘at risk group’ for iodine deficiency? Br J Nutr 81: 3–4 (1999)

16. Davis BC, Kris-Etherton PM: Achieving optimal essential fatty acid status in vegetarians: current knowledge and practical implications. Am J Clin Nutr 78 (suppl): 640S–646S (2003)

17. Demark-Wahnefried W, Polascik TJ, George SL, Switzer BR, Madden JF, Ruffin IV MT, Snyder DC, Owzar K, Hars V, Albala DM, Walther PJ, Robertson CN, Moul JW, Dunn BK, Brenner D, Minasian L, Stella P, Vollmer RT: Flaxseed supplementation (not dietary fat restriction) reduces prostate cancer proliferation rates in men presurgery. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17: 3577–3587 (2008)

18. Deshmukh US, Joglekar CV, Lubree HG, Ramdas LV, Bhat DS, Naik SS, Hardikar PS, Raut DA, Konde TB, Wills AK, Jackson AA, Refsum H, Nanivadekar AS, Fall CH, Yajnik CS: Effect of physiological doses of oral vitamin B12 on plasma homocysteine – a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial in India. Eur J Clin Nutr 64: 495–502 (2010)

19. Domenichiello AF, Kitson AP, Bazinet RP: Is docosahexaenoic acid synthesis from a-linolenic acid sufficient to supply the adult brain? Prog Lipid Res 59: 54–66 (2015)

20. Donaldson MS: Metabolic vitamin B12 status on a mostly raw vegan diet with follow-up using tablets, nutritional yeast, or probiotic supplements. Ann Nutr Metab 44: 229–234 (2000)

21. Dumont E, Vanhaecke F, Cornelis R: Selenium speciation from food source to metabolites: a critical review. Anal Bioanal Chem 385: 1304–1323 (2006)

22. Dyett P, Rajaram S, Haddad EH, Sabate J: Evaluation of a validated food frequency questionnaire for self-defined vegans in the United States. Nutrients 6: 2523–2539 (2014)

23. EFSA (European Food Safety Authority): Scientific opinion of the panel on dietetic products, nutrition and allergies on a request from the European Commission on the safety of ‘Chia seed (Salvia hispanica) and ground whole Chia seed’ as a food ingredient. EFSA Journal 996: 1–26 (2009)

24. Elorinne AL, Alfthan G, Erlund I, Kivimäki H, Paju A, Salminen I, Turpeinen U, Voutilainen S, Laakso J: Food and nutrient intake and nutritional status of Finnish vegans and non-vegetarians. PLoS ONE 11(2): e0148235 (2016)

25. Fang A, Li K, Guo M, He J, Li H, Shen X, Song J: Long-term low intake of dietary calcium and fracture risk in older adults with plant-based diet: a longitudinal study from the China Health and Nutrition Survey. J Bone Miner Res. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.2874 (2016)

26. Fayet-Moore F, Baghurst K, Meyer BJ: Four models including fish, seafood, red meat and enriched foods to achieve Australian dietary recommendations for n-3 LCPUFA for all life-stages. Nutrients 7: 8602–8614 (2015)

27. Fields C, Dourson M, Borak J: Iodine-deficient vegetarians: a hypothetical perchlorate-susceptible population? Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 42: 37–46 (2005)

28. García-Casal MN, Landaeta M, Adrianza de Baptista G, Murillo C, Rincón M, Bou Rached L, Bilbao A, Anderson H, García D, Franquiz J, Puche R, Garcia O, Quintero Y, Peña-Rosas JP.: Valores de referencia de hierro, yodo, zinc, selenio, cobre, molibdeno, vitamina C, vitamina E, vitamina K, carotenoides y polifenoles para la población venezolana. Arch Latinoam Nutr 63: 338–361 (2013)

29. Geppert J, Kraft V, Demmelmair H, Koletzko B: Microalgal docosahexaenoic acid decreases plasma triacylglycerol in normolipidaemic vegetarians: a randomised trial. Br J Nutr 95: 779–786 (2006)

30. Gibson RS, Heath ALM, Szymlek-Gay EA: Is iron and zinc nutrition a concern for vegetarian infants and young children in industrialized countries? Am J Clin Nutr 100(suppl): 459S–468S (2014)

31. Gorczyca D, Prescha A, Szeremeta K, Jankowski A: Iron status and dietary iron intake of vegetarian children from Poland. Ann Nutr Metab 62: 291–297 (2013)

32. Hackshaw-McGeagh LE, Perry RE, Leach VA, Qandil S, Jeffreys M, Martin RM, Lane JA: A systematic review of dietary, nutritional, and physical activity interventions for the prevention of prostate cancer progression and mortality. Cancer Causes Control 26: 1521–1550 (2015)

33. Haddad EH, Berk LS, Kettering, Hubbard RW, Peters WR: Dietary intake and biochemical, hematologic, and immune status of vegans compared with nonvegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr 70 (suppl): 586S–593S (1999)

34. Harris WS: Achieving optimal n–3 fatty acid status: the vegetarian’s challenge ... or not. Am J Clin Nutr 100 (suppl): 449S–452S (2014)

35. Heyssel RM, Bozian RC, Darby WJ, Bell MC: Vitamin B12 turnover in man. The assimulation of vitamin B12 from natural foodstuff by man and estimates of minimal daily dietary requirements. Am J Clin Nutr 18: 176–184 (1966)

36. Hildbrand SM: Bedeutung des Jod/Selen-Quotienten und des Ferritins für das Auftreten einer Autoimmunthyreoiditis (AIT) bei omnivor, lakto-vegetarisch und vegan sich ernährenden Personen. Eine epidemiologische klinische Querschnittstudie. Dissertation zum Erwerb des Doktorgrades der Medizin. Medizinische Fakultät, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (2015)

37. Hoeflich J, Hollenbach B, Behrends T, Hoeg A, Stosnach H, Schomburg L: The choice of biomarkers determines the selenium status in young German vegans and vegetarians. Br J Nutr 104: 1601–1604 (2010)

38. Ho-Pham LT, Vu BQ, Lai TQ, Nguyen ND, Nguyen TV: Vegetarianism, bone loss, fracture and vitamin D: a longitudinal study in Asian vegans and non-vegans. Eur J Clin Nutr 66: 75–82 (2012)

39. Hunt JR: Bioavailability of iron, zinc, and other trace minerals from vegetarian diets. Am J Clin Nutr 78 (Suppl): 633S–639S (2003)

40. Hunt JR: Moving toward a plant-based diet: Are iron and zinc at risk? Nutr Rev 60 (5): 127–134 (2002)

41. Hurrell R, Egli I: Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values. Am J Clin Nutr 91 (Suppl): 1461S–1467S (2010)

42. IOM (Institute of Medicine), Food and Nutrition Board: Dietary reference intakes for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline. Washington, DC: National Academy Press (1998)

43. Jäpelt RB, Jakobsen J: Vitamin D in plants: a review of occurrence, analysis, and biosynthesis. Front Plant Sci 4: 136 (2013)

44. Johnsen JB, Fønnebø V: [Vitamin B 12 deficiency in strict vegetarian diet. Why do some people choose such a diet, and what will they do in case of vitamin B 12 deficiency]. [Article in Norwegian] Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 111: 62–64 (1991) (Abstract)

45. Kanaka C, Schlitz B, Zuppinger KA: Risks of alternative nutrition in infancy: a case report of severe iodine and carnitine deficiency. Eur J Pediatr 151: 786–788 (1992)

46. Krajcovicová- Kudlácková M, Bucková K, Klimes I, Seboková E: Iodine deficiency in vegetarians and vegans. Ann Nutr Metab 47: 183–185 (2003)

47. Kristensen NB, Madsen ML, Hansen TH, Allin KH, Hoppe C, Fagt S, Lausten MS, Gøbel RJ, Vestergaard H, Hansen T, Pedersen O: Intake of macro- and micronutrients in Danish vegans. Nutr J 14: 115 (2015)

48. Leung AM, LaMar A, He X, Braverman LE, Pearce EN: Iodine status and thyroid function of boston-area vegetarians and vegans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: E1303–E1307 (2011)

49. Lightowler HJ, Davies GJ: Assessment of iodine intake in vegans: weighed dietary record vs duplicate portion technique. Eur J Clin Nutr 56: 765–770 (2002)

50. Lightowler HJ, Davies GJ: Iodine intake and iodine deficiency in vegans as assessed by the duplicate-portion technique and urinary iodine excretion. Br J Nutr 80: 529–535 (1998)

51. Lightowler HJ, Davies GJ: Micronutrient intakes in a group of UK vegans and the contribution of self-selected dietary supplements. J R Soc Promot Health 120: 117–124 (2000)

52. Lousuebsakul-Matthews V, Thorpe DL, Knutsen R, Beeson WL, Fraser GE, Knutsen SF: Legumes and meat analogues consumption are associated with hip fracture risk independently of meat intake among Caucasian men and women: the Adventist Health Study-2. Public Health Nutr 17: 2333–2343 (2014)

53. Luhby AL, Cooperman JM, Donnenfeld AM, Herrero JM, Teller DN, Wenig JB: Observations on transfer of vitamin B12 from mother to fetus and newborn. Am J Dis Child 96: 532–533 (1958)

54. Mangels AR: Bone nutrients for vegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr 100 (suppl): 469S–475S (2014)

55. Marsh KA, Munn EA, Baines SK: Protein and vegetarian diets. MJA Open 1 Suppl 2: 7–10 (2012)

56. Martens IBG, Cardoso BR, Hare DJ, Niedzwiecki MM, Lajolo FM, Martens A, Cozzolino SMF: Selenium status in preschool children receiving a Brazil nut-enriched diet. Nutrition 31: 1339–1343 (2015)

57. Messina V, Messina MJ: Soy products as sources of calcium in the diets of Chinese Americans. J Am Diet Assoc 110: 1812–1813 (2010)

58. Mohd Ali N, Yeap SK, Ho WY, Beh BK, Tan SW, Tan SG: The promising future of chia, Salvia hispanica L. J Biomed Biotechnol. Article ID 171956 (2012)

59. Morales Torres J, Gutiérrez Ureña S, Osteoporosis Committee of Pan-American League of Associations for Rheumatology (PANLAR): The burden of osteoporosis in Latin America. Osteoporos Int 15: 625–632 (2004)

60. Nachshon L, Katz Y: [The importance of “milk bones” to “wisdom bones” – cow milk and bone health – lessons from milk allergy patients]. [Article in Hebrew] Harefuah 155: 163–166, 195–196 (2016) (Abstract)

61. Norberg B: Turn of tide for oral vitamin B12 treatment. J Intern Med 246: 237–238 (1999)

62. Norris J: How recommendations were formulated. Last updated: August 2013. http://www.veganhealth.org/b12/formula (9 Nov 2015)

63. Ogawa-Wong AN, Berry MJ, Seale LA: Selenium and metabolic disorders: an emphasis on type 2 diabetes risk. Nutrients 8: 80 (2016)

64. Outila TA, Kärkkäinen MUM, Seppänen RH, Lamberg-Allardt CJE: Dietary intake of vitamin D in premenopausal, healthy vegans was insufficient to maintain concentrations of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and intact parathyroid hormone within normal ranges during the winter in Finland. J Am Diet Assoc 100: 434–441 (2000)

65. PAHO (Pan American Health Organization): Nutritional situation in the Americas. Epidemiol Bull 15: 1–6 (1994)

66. Plehwe WE, Carey RPL: Spinal surgery and severe vitamin D deficiency. MJA 176: 438–439 (2002)

67. Quintaes KD, Amaya-Farfan J, Tomazini FM, Morgano MA, de Almeyda Hajisa NM, Trezza Neto J: Mineral migration and influence of meal preparation in iron cookware on the iron nutritional status of vegetarian students. Ecol Food Nutr 46: 125–141 (2007)

68. Reid MA, Marsh KA, Zeuschner CL, Saunders AV, Baines SK: Meeting the nutrient reference values on a vegetarian diet. MJA Open 1 (Suppl 2): 33–40 (2012)

69. Remer T, Neubert A, Manz F: Increased risk of iodine deficiency with vegetarian nutrition. Br J Nutr 81: 45–49 (1999)

70. Rizzo NS, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Sabate J, Fraser GE: Nutrient profiles of vegetarian and non vegetarian dietary patterns. J Acad Nutr Diet 113: 1610–1619 (2013)

71. Rohner F, Zimmermann M, Jooste P, Pandav C, Caldwell K, Raghavan R, Raiten DJ: Biomarkers of nutrition for development – iodine review. J Nutr 144: 1322S–1342S (2014)

72. Sanders TAB: DHA status of vegetarians. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 81: 137–141 (2009)

73. Sanders TAB: Vegetarian diets. In: Geissler CA, Powers HJ: Human nutrition. 12th edition. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier. 355–363 (2012)

74. Sarter B, Kelsey KS, Schwartz TA, Harris WS: Blood docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in vegans: associations with age and gender and effects of an algal-derived omega-3 fatty acid supplement. Clin Nutr 34: 212–218 (2015)

75. Saunders AV, Craig WJ, Baines SK: Zinc and vegetarian diets. MJA Open 1 (Suppl 2): 17–22 (2012)

76. Saunders AV, Davis BC, Garg ML: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vegetarian diets. MJA Open 1 (Suppl 2): 22–26 (2012)

77. Schüpbach R, Wegmüller R, Berguerand C, Bui M, Herter‑Aeberli I: Micronutrient status and intake in omnivores, vegetarians and vegans in Switzerland. Eur J Nutr Oct 26. doi: 10.1007/s00394-015-1079-7 [Epub ahead of print] (2015)

78. Smith TJ, Tripkovic L, Damsgaard CT, Mølgaard C, Ritz C, Wilson-Barnes SL, Dowling KG, Hennessy A, Cashman KD, Kiely M, Lanham-New SA, Hart KH: Estimation of the dietary requirement for vitamin D in adolescents aged 14–18 y: a dose-response, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 104: 1301–1309 (2016)

79. Sobiecki JG, Appleby PN, Bradbury KE, Key TJ: High compliance with dietary recommendations in a cohort of meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians, and vegans: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition–Oxford study. Nutr Res 36: 464–477 (2016)

80. Thomson CD: Assessment of requirements for selenium and adequacy of selenium status: a review. Eur J Clin Nutr 58: 391–402 (2004)

81. Thomson CD, Chisholm A, McLachlan SK, Campbell JM: Brazil nuts: an effective way to improve selenium status. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 379–384 (2008)

82. Thorpe DL, Knutsen SF, Beeson WL, Rajaram S, Fraser GE: Effects of meat consumption and vegetarian diet on risk of wrist fracture over 25 years in a cohort of peri- and postmenopausal women. Public Health Nutr 11: 564–572 (2008)

83. Tucker KL: Vegetarian diets and bone status. Am J Clin Nutr 100 (suppl): 329S–335S (2014)

84. Ullah R, Nadeem M, Khalique A, Imran M, Mehmood S, Javid A, Hussain J: Nutritional and therapeutic perspectives of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.): a review. J Food Sci Technol 53: 1750–1758 (2016) (Abstract)

85. Ustianowski A, Shaffer R, Collin S, Wilkinson RJ, Davidson RN: Prevalence and associations of vitamin D deficiency in foreign-born persons with tuberculosis in London. J Infect 50: 432–437 (2005)

86. Vidailhet M, Mallet E, Bocquet A, Bresson JL, Briend A, Chouraqui JP, Darmaun D, Dupont C, Frelut ML, Ghisolfi J, Girardet JP, Goulet O, Hankard R, Rieu D, Simeoni U, Turck D, Comité de nutrition de la Société française de pédiatrie: Vitamin D: Still a topical matter in children and adolescents. A position paper by the Committee on Nutrition of the French Society of Paediatrics. Arch Pediatr 19: 316-328 (2012)

87. Vitoria I, Maraver F, Ferreira-Pêgo C, Armijo F, Moreno Aznar L, Salas-Salvadó J: The calcium concentration of public drinking waters and bottled mineral waters in Spain and its contribution to satisfying nutritional needs. Nutr Hosp 30: 188–199 (2014)

88. Waldmann A, Koschizke JW, Leitzmann C, Hahn A: Dietary iron intake and iron status of German female vegans: results of the German Vegan Study. Ann Nutr Metab 48: 103–108 (2004)

89. Weaver CM, Proulx WR, Heaney R: Choices for achieving adequate dietary calcium with a vegetarian diet. Am J Clin Nutr 70 (suppl): 543S–548S (1999)

90. Woo KS, Kwok TCY, Celermajer DS: Vegan diet, subnormal vitamin B-12 status and cardiovascular health. Nutrients 6: 3259–3273 (2014)

91. Wrobel JK, Power R, Toborek M: Biological activity of selenium: revisited. IUBMB Life 68: 97–105 (2016)

92. Xia Y, Hill KE, Byrne DW, Xu J, Burk RF : Effectiveness of selenium supplements in a low-selenium area of China. Am J Clin Nutr 81: 829–834 (2005)

93. Zimmermann MB, Andersson M: Assessment of iodine nutrition in populations: past, present, and future. Nutr Rev 70: 553–570 (2012)